3 Principles of Teaching and Learning

Setting the Stage

Carmen set out to evaluate three teachers in her school. As a new vice principal, her job was to examine the quality of teaching for educators in her building. She walked into three classrooms that morning and observed the following:

• Mr. Patterson had his lesson plans completed and organized by date, time, and course. He worked to ensure that everyone he instructed was presented with opportunities to learn. He had an interesting lesson opening, and made sure learners knew the objectives for the day before they begin. Learners were guided through carefully planned lessons which included opportunities to demonstrate knowledge, relearn information, and work toward stated goals.
• Ms. Diaz loves her content area and is consistently enthusiastic about the things she expects others to learn. She worked to make sure she clearly described concepts and occasionally used humor to lighten the mood and create a positive learning environment. She integrated new learning activities into her instruction and provided opportunities for learners to receive positive reinforcement for completing tasks and learning concepts. While enthusiastic, she made sure her learners remained on task and worked through the material they should be completing.
• Ms. Novak centered learners in her approach to instruction. She focused on motivating learners to want to learn. She developed and delivered engaging lessons that allowed learners to connect with the content on a deeper level. Her focus was on creating instruction which helped learners retain information and apply content to other situations.

Introduction

Learners naturally make appraisals of the quality of educators. Most people can list the characteristics we use when describing good and bad educators, which invites the question: what makes someone a good educator? Which of the teachers Carmen observed would you choose to learn from? Do you think these educators are good at their job? What characteristics do they exhibit that indicate their potential for success in the classroom?

Now, think for a moment about the best educator you have ever had … it might be from elementary school, high school, a college professor, or someone who taught you a specific hobby or life skill in an informal setting. Next, think about what they did that made them a good educator from your perspective. Were they passionate about the content? Did they encourage you personally or academically? Did they care about you as an individual? Make a mental list of their teaching characteristics or jot them down on a piece of paper.

Is the best educator you’ve ever had similar or different from the three educators we examined at the opening of the chapter? What commonalities exist between the three educators in the scenarios and your ideal educator? The simple truth is, there are many ways to be a good educator. Every learner is different, and each learner has different learning needs. Every educator is different too. One of the challenges to becoming an educator is knowing that there are people who do the job well. You might be thinking, “I don’t think I could be like the educators in my scenario, and I don’t think I’ll ever be as good as the best educator I’ve ever had.” That’s okay. Our role as developing educators is to find our own path and to develop a set of teaching skills that are uniquely matched to us.

The principles of teaching and learning are the foundation upon which great educators are built. These concepts relate to organizing content for learners, delivering instruction, and understanding how learners learn. In our original scenarios Mr. Patterson focused on the principles of teaching related to organizing content, Ms. Diaz focused on the principles of teaching related to delivering instruction, and Ms. Novak focused on the principles of student learning. In this chapter, we will examine the principles of teaching and learning and discuss where they came from, how they function in a learning environment, and why they are important.

Overview of the Principles of Teaching and Learning

Educational researchers have been working to define the principles of teaching and learning for decades. In fact, many of the earliest philosophical conversations in most cultures were related to determining how information should be taught and how people should learn. So, before we can discuss the principles of teaching and learning, let’s pause to define both teaching and learning. Teaching is the process of mutual exchange and/or relationship among an educator, learners, and curriculum or society (Dewey, 1938). Learning is the process of acquiring and transforming information into knowledge which can be assimilated, transformed, and processed by the learner (Sousa, 2010).

Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2007) suggested that to have a working ability to teach, a novice educator must be able to understand learners, curriculum content, and how to teach. While there are many ways to think about teaching and learning, the core principles of teaching and learning are the same. For the purpose of this chapter, we will examine the principles of teaching and learning in three contexts:

• Principles of Organizing Content. These principles deal with how educators transform information in the world into curriculum that is ready to be shared with learners.
• Principles of Delivering Instruction. These principles provide insight for educators related to how they interact with learners in the learning environment.
• Principles of Student Learning. These principles are related to learners perceiving instructional cues, receiving information, and assimilating new learning into their current knowledge base.

Organizing Content

Have you ever encountered educators who made you wonder if they were organized and ready to teach? Did you ever worry that an educator was ill-prepared to deliver content? The first step in preparing to educate learners is to organize the content you will teach. We will discuss processes for organizing content in detail in chapter 7, “Planning for Effective Instruction.” From a broader perspective, there are important principles of teaching that can help guide thoughts around preparing content for learners.

Principle 1: Subject matter should be organized in a sequence and logically from simple to more complex.

Organizing content is best done when we meet learners at their current level of knowledge, then increase the complexity of concepts, while making sure to tie new information to what learners already know. Organizing the content means first organizing the subject matter by listing the items learners are expected to know at the end of the course. These learning outcomes, often called objectives, should be sequenced to present learners with more foundational concepts first. This can allow learner knowledge to build based on the information they have already acquired in the class. This concept is typically referred to as scaffolding, which makes sense if you think for a moment about the way a scaffold works. To reach higher levels on a scaffold, we need to climb up each layer below. The same concepts are true with learning. Learners should learn more basic concepts first, then they can increase their level of cognition and build upon their new knowledge. A large-scale example of the concept of scaffolding is learning to read. Before someone can read, they first need to be able to recognize each letter, once letters are recognizable, the sound each letter makes can be added to the knowledge, once sounds are understood for each letter, small strings of letters can be added to form short words. Gradually, as understanding of letter combinations and phonics rules increase, someone can scaffold their knowledge to read complicated words.

Knowing student knowledge level and prior experiences is critical to successfully integrating principle 1. How can we discover what learners already know? A good first step is to ask those who know the learning environment and background of the learners what the knowledge strengths are for the group of learners. Becoming an excellent educator means understanding our learners, their interests, and the prior experiences they might have. With this knowledge of learners comes a clarity in the level of knowledge they already possess. A possible strategy for gathering learners’ knowledge is a preassessment of knowledge and experiences. Conducting a preassessment can provide the needed information for the educator to know where the scaffold should begin. Perceptive educators also gain skills to interpret learner understanding and level of knowledge based on the questions learners ask and the responses they give during instruction.

How do we sequence instruction once we have background information on learner content knowledge? An important question to ask is are there sections of the content which will require learners to know knowledge from another section of the content? Some instruction includes knowledge that learners need to build on to grasp more complicated concepts. The foundational concepts should therefore be instructed before the more complicated components. The same is true for objectives for a lesson plan or a series of learning sessions.

While learning is the most important consideration for sequencing instruction, there may be other items to consider in planning a series of instructional lessons. Thinking about how the content aligns with seasons or other local, state, or national events can provide more opportunities for learners. For example, it makes sense to align instruction on transplanting in a greenhouse with the actual greenhouse transplanting schedule or to plan instruction in public speaking to align with a local or state competition. Planning long-term instruction is something that can give learners a foundation upon which to build their content knowledge.

The sequence of instruction should not be a secret to learners. Sharing the sequence with learners allows them to create a visual roadmap of where the instruction will go next and allows them the opportunity to look back on the knowledge they have gained. Giving learners access to the sequence for both the entire series of instruction and within smaller instructional units can provide the clarity learners need to stay focused on the objectives of the instruction.

What does Principle 1 look like in action?

• In a greenhouse management session: Delivering a unit on parts of the plant before a unit on asexual propagation where parts of the plant will be referenced.
• In an animal science session: Ensuring learners know what the types of injections are before a lab on giving injections.
• In a leadership workshop: Discussing the components of a speech prior to having learners compose a speech of their own.

Once we know the flow and sequence of instruction, we can begin to organize individual learning sessions. Each learning session should be organized in a way that allows learners to fully engage with the content and demonstrate their understanding. Principles 2 through 8 are involved with each step of instruction. These principles are built upon the nine events of instruction as developed by Robert Gagne in 1965. Those nine events are:

• Gain attention
• Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
• Inform learners of objectives
• Present stimulus
• Provide learner guidance
• Elicit performance
• Provide feedback
• Assess performance
• Enhance retention and transfer

Let’s examine the principles behind each of these events of instruction and how organizing content can be accomplished by paying attention to the intent of each of these steps.

Principle 2: Learners will not learn unless they find interest in the subject matter; they learn more when they understand why the content is important to their life.

Imagine this scene: You are sitting in the back of a traditional high school classroom when learners come into class. Several are talking to each other, a few more are paying attention to their phones, and a couple even come into the room and put their heads down on the desk. The bell rings and the teacher says, “Start by reading the handout on genetics, then we will discuss.” The educator has obviously planned for the day, but are learners engaged and ready to learn? Without learners shifting their focus to the learning session and topic, very little the educator does will stimulate learning. Learners must be attentive to the educator and to the content for learning to occur.

How can we gain learners’ attention? There are many ways to ensure learners pay attention to the content. Activities designed to stimulate learner attention at the beginning of a learning session are commonly called interest approaches, though they can also be called anticipatory sets, warm-ups, start tasks, or bell ringers. These attention-stimulating activities are designed to help learners engage with the content and the educator. Interest approaches can be designed to simply gain student attention but can also extend into allowing learners to connect their prior experience to the current content or compel them to want to learn more about the topic. Interest must be gained at the beginning of each learning session and at the transition between units of instruction. Gaining content-specific attention is key for learners to be able to engage with the content and to be ready to learn.

You might recall being in a class and thinking, “When will I ever use this?” Being able to answer this question for learners is a core component of instruction. Learners pay more attention to things that matter to their lives currently and in the future. Master educators look for opportunities to tie the content to the lives of their learners through examples or explanations that are relevant. The goal for educators is to create a need. This switch for a learner is the difference between learning content to complete a session or get a score and learning content because it matters in the real world. Our content provides many opportunities for learners to reach this felt need to learn real-world content. The educator’s role is to explain why each subject in the curriculum is important to learners’ lives.

What does Principle 2 look like in action?

• In a water quality workshop: Sharing stories of waterborne illnesses at the opening of a session designed to help learners know how to properly test drinking water.
• In a small engines session: Showing learners an engine that is running poorly and asking learners what they think might be wrong at the beginning of a lesson on troubleshooting.
• In a biology session: Showing learners highly magnified images of animal cells dividing before a lesson on mitosis, then telling learners that understanding this process can help them better understand how both regular growth and cancer works.

Principle 3: Learners learn best when they can tie new knowledge to prior knowledge and experiences.

Can you recall the last time a song made you think of an experience? One of the most remarkable things about humans is our ability to tie new knowledge to things we already know, like a song. The process of learning new information requires that we incorporate new information into that which we already know, a process called assimilation. For assimilation to be most effective, the prior knowledge or experience should be brought back to mind prior to being exposed to new information.

Educators can help learners assimilate new knowledge by asking learners questions to recall information they already know. This questioning process may be as simple as asking learners to recall what was done in class the prior day or as complicated as asking learners to recall an adjacent concept then drawing an analogy to the new content to be learned. When learners recall prior knowledge, they make their brain more ready to receive new information. Recalling prior knowledge allows learners to anchor new knowledge to concepts they already know and can recall. It is similar to pulling a file folder out of a filing cabinet before putting a new paper in it; when a new paper is added to the folder, it is stored with all the other related concepts. In most instances, this method of learning is more effective than learning through repetition or rote memorization because it helps develop neural pathways that can be retained. The more times learners recall information, the more likely they are to be able to retain the information for long periods of time (Rock, 1957).

What does Principle 3 look like in action?

• In a floral design workshop: Posting a slide as learners arrive for a second class with the prompt, “Please list all of the color schemes you remember from yesterday’s lesson.”
• In a metal fabrication shop: Asking learners to share times when they have seen or built something that was not square. Holding a group discussion about the implications of a project not being square.
• In a leadership session: Asking learners to recall times when conflict occurred on a team and the outcome of the conflict prior to discussing methods for conflict resolution.

Principle 4: Learners best gain knowledge when they know what they are expected to learn.

Do you know the most asked question in all K-12 classes in the United States? Believe it or not, the most commonly asked question is, “What are we going to do today?” Why is this the most asked question? Learners are curious and wanting to know what they will learn comes naturally to them. Being able to satisfy curiosity is a good reason to let learners know what they will learn, but sharing learning outcomes with learners is so much more than that.

Of course, for learners to know what they are expected to learn, the educator needs to know what they expect learners to learn. Understanding the objectives of your instruction is a critical component to organizing content and must be the starting point when planning long-term or short-term instruction (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007). Most often, the expectations for learning are called the objectives when the educator is planning and become less formal when presented to learners as a learning outcome. Whether formal or informal, learning expectations should be stated explicitly in measurable terms. An example of an objective and learning outcome include:

• Objective: Learners will be able to explain the importance of personal protective equipment (PPE) when working in a laboratory environment.
• Learning Outcome: You will explain why we wear PPE in the lab.

We might wonder, “If the educator knows what the learners will be learning, isn’t a simple agenda of what they will do enough?” The answer from educational researchers is a resounding no. When a learner knows what they are expected to learn, it has implications for the way content is organized and delivered. One of the biggest benefits to sharing the learning objectives with learners is that they can store new information along with information they already know (Gagne, 1965). To go back our example, when the educator shares with learners they will be learning about PPE, their minds automatically recall their previous experiences and knowledge about PPE. This recall process prepares the brain to create neural networks to the new information. Those networks are critical in learners being able to recall new information later (Sousa, 2010).

As educators, wouldn’t it be nice to have a room full of learners pushing toward learning what we expected them to learn? Another reason for sharing objectives and learning outcomes with learners is that it gives learners more control and responsibility for their own learning (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007). When learners know what they should be able to do, they are more likely to remain on task, ask more questions, and help guide the pace of instruction (Gagne, 1965). Sharing objectives with learners also allows them to self-evaluate their knowledge. Master educators share objectives at the beginning of each instructional session, then they revisit the objectives at the end of the session to assess learner progress. Gathering evidence related to the objectives allows educators to determine if content is mastered, if there are misunderstandings, or if learners need more guidance to grasp the concepts.

We might wonder, what do educators do for classes where learners are working on project-based learning assignments? Even in laboratory settings or with self-paced work, learners can benefit from knowing what they are expected to learn for the day. In a highly individualized setting, this might mean letting learners set their own learning objectives, and assessing their performance based on their own goals. Regardless of the type of learning environment, sharing learning outcomes with learners is perhaps the principle that is easiest to implement and that yields the biggest result for learning. The concept is so important that many evaluation tools include a rating for educators regarding their ability to share learning outcomes with learners.

What does Principle 4 look like in action?

• In a wildlife management workshop: Asking learners to copy down what they should be able to do by the end of class, then at the end of class, asking learners to check off the objectives they feel like they accomplished.
• In a mechanics laboratory: Having each learner write what they plan to learn during lab time on a sticky note and placing on the door on the way to the lab. At the end of class, have learners collect their sticky note and write how they accomplished their objective on the sticky note to turn in for work points.

Principle 5: The method best suited to the content must be used to maximize learning.

There are many different instructional methods educators use to stimulate learning. From lecture to field trips to inquiry-based learning methods, educators must help learners gather knowledge. This process is referred to by Gagne (1965) as “presenting the stimulus.” Sometimes, instructional methods are referred to as “teacher-centered” or “learner-centered” and there are many different opinions for which method to use (Norman & Spohrer, 1996). Master educators have a wide variety of knowledge of instructional methods, and they present information to learners in the format that is best for learners.

There is more than one correct way to present the learning stimulus. How do educators choose an instructional strategy to match the content? The first question to ask is “What are the objectives?” Each objective should be written in a way that helps the educator envision how learners will be assessed. For example, if the objective is for learners to describe the influence of light intensity on plants, it might be appropriate for learners to inquire into the concept by designing an experiment to test light intensity. If, by contrast, the objective is to list the types of greenhouse lighting, an experiment is not logical, as the outcome is simply to list. In this case, another instructional strategy (like lecture, or collaborative learning) might be more appropriate.

The next question to ask when determining how to present the stimulus to learners is “How can we maximize learner engagement?” Many can recall being bored in a class. Most likely, boredom stems from not being given enough opportunity to engage during the instruction. Learners better grasp information when they have the opportunity to play an active role in the learning, which will be discussed in more depth in principle 15. Other considerations for presenting the learning stimulus to learners are how learners in the class prefer to interact with the subject matter and each other, how much time is allotted for learning the content, and the comfort level of the educator in using varying instructional strategies.

What does Principle 5 look like in action?

• In a floral design workshop: Giving each student a different description of a color scheme and asking them to find an example from a magazine to share with the class. Once they have found their examples, learners can share their findings with others who collect the information about the color schemes in their notes.
• In a plant science session: Having learners set up an inquiry-based learning experiment to determine the influence of different light intensities on plants. Learners keep detailed observations and, at the end of the experiment, share their findings and collaborate with others to develop an understanding of light intensity.

Principle 6: Learners must be given opportunities to practice and to receive feedback to clarify their understanding.

Have you ever thought you understood something, only to find out later your knowledge was missing a key component? Imagine this scenario: A educator demonstrates a fillet weld to a group of learners. They then give each learner two pieces of metal and tell them to go complete the weld. Learners are scored on their first attempt. What is wrong in this scenario? If you wonder why the educator in this scenario did not allow learners the opportunity to practice and improve, you are well on your way to understanding our next principle.

The next principle of teaching related to organizing content is the process of allowing learners to identify and fill in the gaps in their understanding prior to the final (summative) assessment of their knowledge or skills. Learners should be prompted to demonstrate their knowledge under the guidance of the educator, who can provide additional information or correction while the student is still forming their full understanding of the content. This process is repeated as a loop which includes providing learning guidance, eliciting performance from the student, and then providing feedback. The process is also referred to as formative assessment because it happens when the knowledge is still forming in the student’s mind (Harlen & James, 1997).

One of the most important parts of formative assessment is allowing learners to self-assess performance. Learners should be asked questions to recall their knowledge in order for the feedback to be most effective. If a student brings an educator a project and asks if the project is good, master educators will most often ask the learner questions about the project in a process which can lead to the learner assessing the work on their own. For example, rather than telling a learner their travel speed was incorrect on a weld, a master educator might point out a section and ask the student, “What do you think about the travel speed here?”

Completing the feedback process helps educators make decisions about when to move on to a new concept or where common misunderstandings might still exist. By asking learners to demonstrate their understanding before the final assessment, learners are given more opportunities to recall information, which can lead to both a deeper understanding of the subject and higher retention for the concepts in the future.

What does Principle 6 look like in action?

• In a beginning welding session: Allowing learners to practice a weld and receive feedback from the instructor between attempts before completing a final weld for a grade.
• In a session on teamwork: Allowing learners to struggle to find common ground on a topic, then asking them to discuss as a group why common ground was difficult to find.
• In an agribusiness workshop: After teaching learners about interest rates, giving learners a worksheet that includes questions on calculating interest rate. After learners complete the worksheet, the educator notices that many learners failed to correctly convert percentages. The educator hands back worksheets with comments and reteaches how to convert percentages to the class the next day.

Principle 7: Educators must assess student knowledge to acquire evidence of understanding.

An important component of organizing content is to know what learners are expected to know at the end of the learning session. Another important component of organizing content is to know how you will gather evidence that learners can meet those expectations. Without assessment, there is a lack of formal evidence that learning took place.

Providing feedback as discussed in principle 6 allows learners to complete formative assessment, but learners should also be asked to demonstrate their knowledge after all the learning within an instructional unit is complete. This demonstration of knowledge is called a summative assessment. A summative assessment is a record of learning that allows educators to make decisions about moving on with the sequence of instruction or continuing to provide guidance to students. Because learning is sequenced to build on itself, completing an assessment is a way of ensuring learners are ready for the next content area.

Summative assessments can take many forms depending on the objectives. For performance-based learning objectives, learners may be assessed using a rubric designed to allow the educator to assign a score based on performance. Knowledge-based objectives might be assessed using a traditional exam, or through a project, paper, or other activity. In agricultural education, both knowledge and performance skills can be assessed through integrating Leadership Development Events (LDEs) or Career Development Events (CDEs) into the learning as an authentic assessment of knowledge and/or skills. For example, if your food science class includes objectives related to developing a product label, your assessment could mirror the National FFA Food Science CDE Rubric and learners could attend a district, area, or even state event as their summative assessment.

What does Principle 7 look like in action?

• In an introduction to agricultural mechanics session: Giving learners an exam which allows them to identify hand tools after learning about hand tools.
• In a food science class: Using the National FFA Food Science CDE Rubric to assess student ability to develop a food nutrition label.

Principle 8: For learners to retain information, they must be repeatedly prompted to recall concepts.

If a student cannot remember what they learned, the learning process is not complete. Retention is the most difficult part of learning, as it requires information to be stored in a way that allows recall (Rock, 1957). Some of the principles we have already discussed (recall of prior knowledge and informing learners of the objectives) are important to storing information for retention (Rock, 1957), but there are other considerations to think through as well.

For a learner to be able to retain information, the information must be recalled. Each time a learner is asked to recall information, they are more likely to retain the information for a longer period of time (Tinto, 1990). Educators can help this process by looking for opportunities to recall information from prior lessons, units or even courses. Educators can also help this process by allowing learners to recall information in other content areas and relate it to their agricultural education classes.

What does Principle 8 look like in action?

• In a meat science workshop: Asking learners to list the bones inside meat cuts and which other bones they connect to in a complete carcass, then asking them to identify the bones on the live animal.
• In a greenhouse session: While pinching plants in the greenhouse, quizzing learners on the identifications of the plants growing to help with plant ID recall.

Delivering Instruction

Being a good educator means more than just having lesson plans ready to go, it means being prepared to deliver instruction in a way that allows learners to connect. While well-organized content is the foundation of any class session, if the educator cannot make a connection with learners, even the best-prepared lesson might not result in student learning. There are several principles of teaching that are not related to how content is delivered but are more closely related to how the educator presents themselves and the content to learners.

What are the characteristics that make an educator good at delivering instruction? If you think back to your favorite educator, you will likely be able to identify some of the same characteristics educational researchers have identified. One of the most widely recognized studies on educator characteristics and the relationship to student achievement is the seminal 1971 study of the relationship between teacher behaviors and student achievement conducted by Rosenshine and Furst. These researchers conducted a meta-analysis of numerous studies which examined characteristics of classroom teachers and organized the behaviors into a set of best practices for educators. There were eleven educator characteristics which were found to correlate with student achievement, including:

• Clarity
• Variability
• Enthusiasm
• Task-oriented and/or businesslike behaviors
• Criticism
• Student opportunity to learn criterion material
• Use of student ideas and general indirectness
• Use of structuring comments
• Types of questions
• Probing
• Level of difficulty of instruction

The next set of principles of teaching are directly related to the five most prevalent educator characteristics identified by Rosenshine and Furst (1971) which are: clarity, variability, enthusiasm, task-oriented and/or businesslike behaviors, and student opportunity to learn criterion material.

Principle 9: Learners learn only when the educator provides clarity in their instructions, their content, and their expectations.

Rosenshine and Furst (1971) found that the single most prevalent classroom teacher characteristic related to student achievement was the ability of a teacher to teach with clarity. Clarity is the concept that learners can comprehend what the educator intends them to know, do, or think. It is not enough for educators to understand the content, we must also be able to translate our own knowledge into a language learners can grasp. We must then assemble instructional strategies, practice giving directions to activities, and choose assessments that are also clear to learners.

Educators that strive for clarity spend less time answering questions from learners related to interpreting what the educator wants them to do. Educators who demonstrate clarity are more likely to use a linear path for describing content and assignments, and they understand the content well enough to answer questions in a straightforward manner. Educators who possess clarity are also more likely to be organized and prepared for class.

There are several ways educators can improve clarity. First is to prepare a detailed plan for each lesson. Writing a detailed plan provides time to think through not only the content, but how the educator will move through the flow of the lesson. Including details in the plan such as how learners will move into groups or where assignments will be turned in are indicators that the logistics of a lesson are well-conceived and will be delivered with clarity. Other options for improving clarity as an educator include practicing the lesson and receiving feedback from a mentor before delivering the lesson; establishing and following classroom procedures for housekeeping tasks like turning in papers or moving into groups; and providing instructions at the top of each handout or worksheet.

What does Principle 9 look like in action?

• In a mechanics workshop: Educator highlights places where learners often make mistakes when describing a step-by-step plan to change the wire spool in a MIG welder. Learners have a handout which they can follow along and read the steps in order to the educator during the demonstration. When asked a question, the educator clearly and correctly explains the answer.
• In a learning environment: Educator refers to their plan when breaking learners into groups for a review. The instructions for moving into groups were planned out in the lesson plan and the educator clearly explains the rules to learners before the review.

Principle 10: Each student learns differently; good instruction has enough variability to maximize learning opportunities for all learners.

Variability, at its core, addresses inclusivity in a learning environment. Varying our delivery and our assessment as educators helps ensure every student is included in every learning session. All learners learn differently. Varying our behaviors as educators provides the opportunity to align some aspect of the learning environment to the learners’ preferences for bringing in or transforming information. In addition, by varying instruction, educators can prevent learners from becoming bored and losing interest or motivation toward the content. Variability means using different instructional strategies, types of assessment, instructional materials, and active learning strategies in every learning environment. As mentioned in principle 5, there are many ways to present information to learners. Having variability means using many of these strategies with the same group of learners.

Educators who strive for variability typically have more engaged learners and can reach learners with diverse learning needs. The more variation you can integrate, the more likely you will be to instruct classes that align with student learning preferences, giving every student a chance to succeed. Some options to increase variability as an educator include implementing a new instructional strategy, type of formative assessment, instructional technology, or type of questions on tests; varying the learning environment by hanging different instructional aides in the classroom or occasionally changing the flow of your class sessions; and bringing in a guest speaker to vary the person delivering the information to learners.

What does Principle 10 look like in action?

• In an animal science workshop: Asking learners to create clay models of digestive systems, the next day, allowing learners to complete a dissection of a ruminant digestive tract, and the following day, allowing them to research digestive disorders on the internet to share with the class.
• In a sustainability workshop: Putting students in groups for discussion, then having them create Venn diagrams of the discussion, then allowing them to hear from a specialist in the area of sustainable production.
• In a biology session: After playing one online game for reviewing content all year, switching platforms and asking learners to use a new game for the review.

Principle 11: Enthusiasm toward a content area is contagious. When the educator is excited to teach content, learners are more likely to be excited about learning the content.

Have you ever watched someone teach something they were really excited about? Enthusiasm is contagious. If educators are passionate and excited about what they are teaching, researchers have found that learners will increase their engagement, pay closer attention to the topic, and achieve more than when educators display less passionate about a subject (Keller et al., 2013).

How will our learners know we are excited about a topic? Movement, gestures, and changes in voice can signal enthusiasm, as can the number of personal stories and facts shared on a topic. By raising our energy level learners notice our enthusiasm about the topic. You might be thinking, “But what if I’m NOT enthusiastic about the subject matter?” Consider utilizing a guest speaker who is passionate about the topic or finding a video, story, or news article that paints the topic in an engaging or exciting light.

What does Principle 11 look like in action?

• In a horse management workshop: Educator shows pictures of hoof deformities, goes into depth on the types of corrective shoeing, and shares numerous examples of the importance of hoof care as a component of equine health management.
• In a landscape design session: Educator develops numerous ways for learners to remember each plant, has learners collect plant samples, and shares stories of what each plant is used for in a landscape.

Principle 12: Learners learn best when educators are businesslike and approach teaching as a profession.

Educators who are task-oriented or businesslike remember that the goal of teaching is for learners to understand content. Educators with this characteristic follow a code for professionalism which includes maintaining high expectations, setting clear behavioral guidelines for the learning environment, and challenging learners to work to their full potential. By setting an expectation that learners will behave and challenge themselves, most learners will work to meet those expectations. Being businesslike does not necessarily mean that educators should not allow fun or enjoyment in the learning environment, it simply means that student learning is the task at hand. Educators who are informal and playful can still meet a businesslike principle if the main focus of their work is helping learners grasp concepts.

Businesslike or task-oriented educators work to ensure that transition time (time between learning activities) is well managed. Task-oriented teachers also follow a schedule for the instructional session which allows them to meet the objectives in the time allotted. These educators often model laboratory points after real-life work situations and look for opportunities to incorporate critical thinking and application of knowledge.

What does Principle 12 look like in action?

• In a fabrication session: Educator provides positive reinforcement to learners who complete their cleanup work by following the cleanup chart to meet the expected requirements.
• In a food science workshop: Educator ensures students are learning about the molecular structure of foods. While eating the food they make, learners are assessed on their knowledge gain before returning to the food lab.

Principle 13: Learners can learn only when they are given opportunities to practice knowledge and receive immediate assessment.

The amount of time a learners spend practicing and reinforcing knowledge has a direct influence on their level of achievement. Practice opportunities, followed by immediate feedback, directly aligned to objectives are critical. Educators need to provide learners with as many opportunities to learn material related to the objectives as possible. To maximize the opportunity for learners to learn, educators can structure their class to minimize unneeded information and off-task time. The first thing educators can do to provide opportunities to learners is to create a structured learning environment. When a learning environment has procedures for completing logistic tasks (e.g., how to begin a session, roll call, picking up and turning in papers, using a hall pass, getting supplies), the time available for learners to practice is increased.

Educators can also increase student opportunities by providing supplemental or required learning that happens outside of the learning session. This might include sending reading material or application practice home with learners to complete as homework. In a laboratory-based class, this may include extending open lab hours when learners can work on projects outside of the structured session.

What does Principle 13 look like in action?

• In a natural resources class: Learners will be assessed on their ability to determine water pH. The educator gives each student a handout with instructions, test strips, and a practice worksheet that allows them to test water at five locations of their choice, then tests the samples to see how close the student was to the actual result. Learners are given scores before the test.
• In an agricultural structures class: Learners will be assessed on their ability to measure and cut pieces for a project. The educator has learners cut boards at different lengths as a practice and measures each board to see how close the student was to the correct length. Learners are individually coached about how to adjust measurements if needed.

Student Learning

Knowing what it takes to organize and deliver instruction is just one part of being able to understand how learning occurs. Each of the previous thirteen principles focus on the role of educators in the learning process, but there is another side to the learning equation: the learner. Learners are unique individuals, what works to teach one may not work for another. To help you think about how learners learn, there are a few more principles of learning to share.

Principle 14: Every learner is unique and has unique learning needs.

No two learners are the same, and no two educators are the same. That means for every student and every educator combination, the relationship is different. Most classroom teachers and many educators in nonformal learning environments will encounter learners who have Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) or other accommodations under a Section 504 designation. In these situations, educators are legally bound to be flexible and allow learners an opportunity to succeed. Even outside IEP and 504 situations, learners learn best when educators acknowledge and accommodate students’ unique learning preferences and develop an individualized plan for learning. It may seem farfetched to think that each student should have a slightly different experience in the learning environment, but it is the mark of a master educator to treat each learner according to their needs. The process of varying instruction for individual learners is called differentiation.

How can we accommodate every learner? First, masterful educators make the effort to know their learners as people. By understanding what learners like and dislike and what they believe their talents and shortcomings are, educators are better able to motivate learners. From an instructional standpoint, educators create differences in content, process of learning, or assessments for learners based on their readiness to learn, interests, and individual learning preferences. Some learners move more quickly through the content because of prior knowledge or increased cognitive ability while some may require more intervention. How an educator plan for unique differences matters for learner achievement.

When educators are working toward differentiation, instruction is flexible. Educators make decisions for what learners need based on an ongoing assessment of progress and careful attention to changes in learner knowledge and behavior. Variability, as mentioned in principle 10, is critical to differentiating instruction.

What does Principle 14 look like in action?

• In a veterinary medicine class: The educator has one student with a 504 requiring modifications on time and level of content and another student who is very gifted enjoys video creation. The educator modifies most assignments for the student with the 504 to allow the student to do only lower cognitive level tasks. The gifted student often finishes assignments and project early, and the educator has commissioned the student to create videos of the Veterinary Science CDE practicums to use in their practical lab procedure unit.

Principle 15: Learners must be motivated to learn.

If you ask most high school students what they would like to do with their time, very few would respond that they would prefer to be in school five days a week. Although school and learning are critical for brain development and social development, many learners would prefer not to spend their time in a formalized learning environment. Educators serve as the motivators for learning in both formal and informal settings. Motivated learners take the initiative to learn content, complete assignments, and assess their own progress toward learning objectives. Motivation is also an important predictor of knowledge and overall achievement. Learners who are more motivated to learn persist through challenges, put in more effort, are more likely to engage with the content, and perform better in classes and on standardized tests.

There are two main classifications of student motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic (Rotter, 1966). Intrinsic motivation comes from the satisfaction of the activity itself rather than an outside reward. This type of motivation is more likely to persist across content areas and directly correlates with increased effort. Extrinsic motivation is driven by an external reward like grades. Both types of motivation play a role in learning.

How can educators motivate learners? There are several things successful educators use to motivate learners:

• Give positive reinforcement of learning
• Set goals for learning and celebrate accomplishment
• Be excited about student performance
• Give learners choices about the content/topic
• Variability
• Relate topics to student life
• Help learners see their progress
• External rewards (e.g., praise, progress charts, tangible items) (Rotter, 1966)

What does Principle 15 look like in action?

• In a youth STEM workshop: Learners are given the opportunity to choose their topic for a science fair project. The educator knows a student is passionate about plants and suggests the student use the school greenhouse to complete the project, then informs the class that the top scoring project in each category will advance to a district-level event.

Principle 16: Learners learn more rapidly when they receive detailed feedback for their efforts immediately after demonstrating their knowledge.

How do we feel when someone tells us did the right thing? Positive reinforcement is one of the best ways to motivate people (Walker & Buckley, 1968). Providing positive feedback to learners can help motivate additional learning and stimulate desire to continue learning the subject matter. Providing developmental feedback can help learners correct errors in their knowledge or skill before those misunderstandings are firmly rooted in their mind.

What are the best tips for providing feedback to learners? To begin, researchers recommend being as specific as possible about the actions that led to the feedback. Giving learners the comment “Great job!” is not nearly as effective as saying “You did a wonderful job creating balance and form in this floral design.” The more specific feedback is to learners, the more likely it is that they will repeat the positive behavior. Keeping developmental feedback focused on the learning objectives ensures that we are avoiding criticism that could be taken personally. The next tip is to give feedback as quickly as possible, which has a direct influence on increasing the effectiveness of the feedback. Learners are also more likely to receive feedback from an educator if they have already self-assessed their performance and know how their current actions impact a larger goal.

What does Principle 16 look like in action?

• In an electricity workshop: Educator builds excitement in the learners about seeing their lightbulbs light when creating a lighting board. Every time a student’s light comes on, they give a standing ovation to the student then asks the student to complete a self-assessment worksheet on their own performance. 

Principle 17: Learners learn better when they think about how they learn.

What is the best location for you to study? Do you prefer complete silence, or is background music more helpful to you? The ability to think about our own thinking is called metacognition. Learners with metacognitive abilities achieve at higher levels (McCormick, 2003). As learners increase awareness of how they acquire knowledge, learners can learn to regulate their behavior to optimize learning. They begin to see how their strengths and weaknesses affect how they perform and are more likely to play a role in their own self-assessment of knowledge (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Metacognition can also play a role in learners becoming reflective about other areas of their lives. Researchers cite correlations between higher metacognitive abilities and increased self-awareness in social settings, increased ability to understand differences in others, and increased intrinsic motivation.

With so many benefits to metacognition, we might be wondering how educators can help learners improve their metacognitive abilities. Most importantly, educators can help learners recognize that their minds are programmed for growth. Teaching learners growth mindset concepts can increase their academic and social achievements (Dweck, 2006). Educators can also provide additional practice for concepts learners struggle with, prompt learners to reflect on coursework and their understanding of concepts, and increase the cognitive level of assessments, which allows learners to deepen their knowledge of a subject. 

What does Principle 17 look like in action?

• In an agricultural biology class: Educator asks learners to complete an exit ticket which responds to three prompts: (1) What was the easiest concept for me to understand? Why? (2) What was the most challenging concept for me to understand? Why? (3) What strategies will work best for me when I study for the genetics exam?

Putting It All Together

Becoming a masterful educator is about more than just organizing curriculum and delivering instruction, it also requires an understanding of the core principles that help guide instructional decisions. Think back to your favorite educator. Which of the principles of teaching and learning could you identify in the way they taught? Incorporating all the principles in this chapter into daily instruction and action as an educator can take time. As we develop our skills as educators, these principles can help guide the way we think about teaching and learning. By taking time to align what we do to these principles, we are taking the first step toward becoming the educators that someone will reflect on one day as their favorite.

Still wondering how these lessons look in practice? The best way to become proficient at integrating these principles is to practice. Some practice tips for principles of teaching and learning in each area are as follows:

• Principles of Organizing Content
  • Practice planning out a scope and sequence for a course over a school year. Begin by determining the course objectives and then break down the things learners should know or do into a logical sequence of events.
  • Practice writing lessons that include all the nine events of instruction.
  • Have a peer, mentor educator, or educator education faculty review your unit plans and daily lesson plans. Their expertise can help you identify areas of strength and areas for improvement.
  • Teach your lessons! Sometimes the best way to find the errors in organizing content is to present your lessons to learners. Reflect at the end of the lesson and think about which principles were or were not embedded or shared with learners.
• Principles of Delivering Instruction
  • Spend some time thinking about your own progress toward each of the characteristics of an effective educator as set forth by Rosenshine and Furst. Which of the characteristics come naturally to you? Which will you need to spend some time focusing on integrating? This reflective process can allow you to pinpoint areas for continued improvement. Some of the best educators honed their skills through careful reflection and continual improvement, and you can too.
  • Video yourself teaching. Sometimes watching a video of your own instruction can be a powerful glimpse at what learners see when you are teaching. Take the time to identify places where you demonstrated principles of delivering instruction and make a note of principles that were not evident. As a bonus, you can see what university supervisors and administrators get to see when you are evaluated on your teaching abilities. Find the rubric they will use to evaluate you and complete your own self-assessment.
• Principles of Student Learning
  • Review your lesson plans and make sure you have taken into consideration differentiation in instruction, student motivation, how you will provide feedback, and how you will help learners learn about their learning.
  • Take advantage of every opportunity to learn from each student how to be a better educator. Make a note of what works for learners and make every effort to replicate things that have worked in the past.

References

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Rosenshine, B., & Furst, N. (1971). Research on teacher performance criteria. In B.O. Smith (Ed.), Research in Teacher Education (pp. 37–72). Prentice Hall.

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Walker, H. M., & Buckley, N. K. (1968). The use of positive reinforcement in conditioning attending behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(3), 245–250.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Reflections on theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives, 2, 289-307.