12 Effective Use of the Agriculture Laboratory Environment to Support Student Learning

Hannah H. Scherer

Setting the Stage

Most agricultural education programs have both classroom and laboratory facilities. Laboratories for agricultural instruction are not there out of tradition. Rather, laboratories are a crucial site of powerful teaching and learning in agriculture. Many physical spaces can be considered a laboratory environment; the defining characteristic is that students are using authentic resources in hands-on approaches. Within this definition, a traditional classroom can also be considered a laboratory environment if the teacher brings in materials. Consider the following scenario to help you start thinking about this topic:

Picture yourself as a new teacher getting to know the spaces in your program. You can already see how you will arrange the desks in your classroom and utilize the technology to support student learning, but you are really excited to get the students into the laboratory space. Do you have a greenhouse? A land lab? A woodworking shop? A biotechnology lab? What else? Picture it in your mind. If you need some ideas, see Appendix 12A for a list of possible in-school laboratory facilities by career pathway.

You know that you want to give the students plenty of hands-on time in the lab, but you also know that powerful teaching requires intentional planning for student engagement, inclusivity, and assessment. You start to wonder … How do I address these elements in the lab? How do I decide when to teach in the lab and when to teach in the classroom? How does what students do in the lab relate to their learning in the classroom? How do I ensure that learning is happening when students are in the lab? What other questions do you have?

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

  • Differentiate among principal ways the laboratory environment can be used to support student learning.
  • Design units of instruction that effectively utilize the laboratory environment to meet student learning objectives.
  • Identify unique considerations in planning, delivery of instruction, and assessment in the laboratory environment.

Introduction

Just like in the classroom, powerful teaching in the laboratory environment involves backward design. Teachers must carefully consider the learning goals they have for their students when they make decisions about how to organize the learning activities in and outside the laboratory environment. While not an exhaustive list, this chapter presents three principal ways that teachers can use the laboratory environment to support student learning. Each mode is grounded in a different theoretical perspective on learning and supports different types of outcomes for students. Each will be appropriate at different times and can be used in combination when planning a laboratory-based course.

Important Note about Safety, Inclusion, and Laboratory Management!

An essential element of teaching in any laboratory environment is providing for safety instruction and monitoring students for safe practices throughout any lesson. Every agricultural laboratory has many dangerous areas and situations. It is crucial that students learn to work in their environment safely and that safety is considered throughout the planning process. Every facility is different (see Appendix 12A) and comprehensive coverage of safety and laboratory management is outside of the scope of this textbook. You will need to learn about safety instruction along with other important topics such as supervising students in the laboratory, managing tools and equipment, and establishing clean-up routines through working with a mentor, seeking out industry resources, and/or taking an agricultural laboratory management course. Equally important is to make every effort to include all students in the laboratory environment when it is safe to do so. Working with special education professionals in your building to modify activities to accommodate student needs and increase physical accessibility of your laboratory spaces is important to ensure that you meet the standard of inclusive learning environments. Staying up to date with current safety standards will also be part of your ongoing professional learning throughout your career. Potential mentors in this area include advisory board members, industry professionals, other teachers, and retired teachers. Some introductory considerations for safety instruction and laboratory management are provided in Appendix 12B.

Along with the design considerations for supporting student learning, it is essential that you ask yourself the following questions and seek out answers BEFORE any students enter the laboratory environment.

  • What safety tests are students required to pass before using the tools and equipment included in this unit?
  • What are my expectations for student behavior in the laboratory environment? How will I ensure that my expectations are clearly communicated and consistently reinforced? Have I adequately accounted for cultural differences among my students in setting and communicating my expectations? What are the consequences for a student who does not meet these expectations?
  • What accommodations are required to ensure that all students have an opportunity to participate in the laboratory environment? Can I provide these accommodations, or do I need to seek additional support or guidance from a resource teacher? Who should I be collaborating with to meet the needs of all of my students?
  • What is my plan for monitoring student behavior in the laboratory environment? How will I handle a student that poses a safety risk to themselves or others?
  • Are there sufficient resources for all students to be doing the same thing, or do I need to plan for stations? If there are stations, what will they be and how will I ensure that all students are on task?
  • Have I ensured that all of the tools and equipment students will need are in good working order?

Background: Science and Theory

An overview of direct instruction, experiential learning, and discovery learning is presented here as a foundation for the remainder of the chapter.

Direct Instruction for Technical Skill Development

Within direct instruction , the laboratory is viewed as a place where students learn and practice the technical skills needed for agricultural occupations. This learning happens through direct instruction (Hunter, 1982; Dell’Olio & Donk, 2007) that scaffolds psychomotor skill development as students work toward the independence that they will need to use these skills in the future. This teacher-directed mode is grounded in information processing and behaviorism, which help the teacher carefully consider how they organize instruction to best support student development of well-defined skills safely and to industry standards. When applied to psychomotor learning outcomes in agricultural education, the laboratory environment enables the teacher to use authentic tools and materials in carefully planned demonstrations to present the skill, design hands-on opportunities for guided and independent practice, and reinforce the learning through distributive practice in subsequent activities (Osborne, 1986).

Experiential Learning for Generalized Understanding of Real-World Processes

Within experiential learning, the laboratory is viewed as the site of authentic experience with real-world processes in agriculture. These experiences form the basis for experiential learning, which happens through a process of guided reflection and meaning-making to build toward a more generalized understanding of what happened that can then be used in subsequent experiences. Over time, this repeated process of experience, reflection, meaning-making, and applying new understandings (the “learning spiral” [Kolb, 2015]) can lead to a deeper ability to flexibly apply learning in practice. This mode is grounded in Kolb’s experiential learning theory, which helps the teacher consider any experience in the laboratory environment (successful or not) as having the potential to contribute to student learning. When applied to process-oriented learning outcomes in agricultural education, the laboratory environment allows the teacher to provide real-world experiences in agriculture that are not possible in the classroom.

Discovery Learning for Coconstruction of Solutions to Real-World Problems

Within discovery learning, both the classroom and the laboratory are viewed as integrated resources to support students as they address real-world questions and problems in agriculture. This happens through student-centered instructional models grounded in inductive reasoning, such as problem-based learning, design-based learning, and inquiry-based learning. These models are grounded in social constructivism, which compels the teacher to design learning experiences in which students work together to address issues that matter to them so that they can develop their own solutions and explanations (Schunk, 2012). Within the context of instructional models that support problem solving and the development of higher-order thinking skills, the laboratory environment provides authentic resources (tools, equipment, spaces, etc.) for students to use in their efforts. This allows for student discoveries, designs, and solutions to be more realistic and relatable to the agricultural industry and/or their own lives.

Designing for Powerful Teaching in the Laboratory Environment

Deciding what, how, and when to teach in the laboratory involves decisions at all scales, driven by the question of “why?” Everything presented in this book about effective teaching, evaluation, and inclusion apply in the laboratory as much as they do in the classroom, but there are unique characteristics about the laboratory environment that require additional consideration. In this section, each mode described above will be illustrated with examples and further guidance for designing instruction within that mode.

Meet the Carroll County High School Agriculture Department

Vignettes in this chapter will feature ways in which teachers at Carroll County High School (CCHS) design for effective teaching in the laboratory environment. CCHS is a public, comprehensive high school located in a rural southwest Virginia. The school comprises grades nine through twelve and has approximately 1,150 students. Farm production and agriculture are the largest economic sector in Carroll County. CCHS’s agriculture department has a STEM Lab for Agriculture equipped with the latest biotechnology research equipment, a dedicated sixty-five-acre farm, and an agricultural mechanics facility. The agriculture department serves students with a diverse range of career and postsecondary educational goals.

Designing Direct Instruction for Technical Skill Development

Direct Instruction in Action at CCHS

In her floriculture class, Ms. Sarah Jo Jones often transforms her classroom into a laboratory environment to teach floral design principles. She designs hands-on direct instruction lessons that build toward students independently designing floral arrangements for local clients. Today, she is teaching about balance in floral design. Her objective is for students to be able to construct a vase arrangement that achieves symmetrical balance. She has set out vases, stems, and greenery on her table at the front of the room and each student has the same materials at their station. There are additional materials at the front of the room. Ms. Jones begins the lesson with asking students if they have learned about the concept of balance in other settings, such as art class. She then announces that this will be the focus of class today and states the objective. She explains the concept of symmetrical balance and why it matters in floral design. Ms. Jones builds an arrangement to demonstrate how she uses the materials she has to achieve balance in her arrangement, pausing at key stages to have students do the same thing. While students are working, she circulates and gives each student feedback. After everyone has an arrangement, she leads a discussion to make sure students understand why she made the choices she did and how they can achieve balance in their work. Ms. Jones then directs students to gather additional materials from the front of the room and continue to build out their arrangement with the goal of maintaining symmetrical balance. Students submit a photo of their final arrangement to Ms. Jones for assessment. At the end of class, Ms. Jones reminds students that they will be using this concept along with other floral design principles when they work with their wedding client later in the semester. Finally, she instructs them to follow standard clean-up procedures before dismissal.

This vignette illustrates how Ms. Jones uses direct instruction in order to support technical skill development through engaging the students’ interest, modeling the technique, and giving students a chance to practice with close guidance and feedback; they will continue to develop this psychomotor skill through opportunities for independent practice. Through evaluation, she can determine the level of skill development for each student and continue to support them through distributed practice of the skill within the context of real-world application. Considerations for each stage of direct instruction in the laboratory environment are as follows:

Focus Activity

A brief focus activity should draw students in to the lesson for the day. Safety is an important aspect of transitioning into the session for the day. Ensuring that students are focused and prepared for entering the laboratory environment is a daily task and can be supported through establishing routines as described in Appendix 12B.

Stating Objectives and Providing Rationale

For psychomotor skill development, performance objectives are most appropriate. Situating the objectives for the lesson in the context of what students are already able to do and how they will use the new skill in the future is an important step in direct instruction. Teachers can use Universal Design for Learning to individualize performance objectives to meet unique needs of students in their classes.

Presenting Content and Modeling

Modeling through a demonstration is the primary mode of content delivery for psychomotor skill development in the laboratory environment. Typically, the teacher will break down the skill into steps, using narration to explain how and why they are doing what they are doing. Careful planning for how this demonstration is sequenced, what the teacher does and says for each step, and how students will be positioned to best see what the teacher is doing are essential.

Checking for Understanding

Checking for understanding should happen throughout the demonstration. Before moving on to the next step, ask the class to answer questions related to what was just demonstrated, including any safety measures that are important to highlight. For safety reasons, making sure that students are able to explain what they need to do is often an important precursor to hands-on practice.

Guided Practice

Guided practice can be integrated with the demonstration or happen after the demonstration is complete. In some cases, the demonstration will happen in the classroom and then the class will move to a laboratory space for guided practice. In other cases, the demonstration will take place in the same space where students will practice the skill. When it is safe to do so, the teacher can have students follow along with a demonstration using authentic materials. In this case the teacher pauses at each key step and circulates to check that students have completed the task accurately before moving on, completing several cycles of modeling, checking for understanding, and guided practice within a single demonstration. Throughout guided practice, the teacher circulates, monitoring the individual actions of the students, providing one-on-one feedback and corrections, and bringing the whole class back together as needed for reteaching to address common errors or challenges. By the end of guided practice, the teacher is confident that each student is ready to practice the skill on their own.

Independent Practice

In this stage, students are given the opportunity to practice the skill on their own. This is important for psychomotor skills that they will need to use with fluency in subsequent projects or laboratory activities. Ensuring that each student can perform the skill correctly and safely on their own is an important precursor to independent practice. Managing student behavior and access to resources during independent practice requires careful planning (Appendix 12B).

Closure

Through closure, the teacher reinforces the need for the skill that was taught and previews for the students how they will use it in the future. Following closure of the lesson, students are dismissed to complete clean-up procedures before leaving the laboratory environment for the day.

Distributed Practice

Teachers of agriculture do not teach psychomotor skills independent of real-world application. Once students have developed the technical skills they need in a particular area, such as woodworking, they combine these skills and continue to practice each one as they apply them in the context of authentic projects and activities in the laboratory environment. Such projects can be designed as summative assessments of unit-scale transfer goals alongside evaluation of performance objectives related to individual skills.

Check for Understanding

Review the vignette describing Ms. Jones’s floral design class. Can you identify what she did for each stage of direct instruction described here?

Designing Experiential Learning for Generalized Understanding of Real-World Processes

Experiential Learning in Action at CCHS

As part of a grant to test out production methods for extending the growing season, students at Carroll County High School work with Dr. Randy Webb to grow raspberries in high tunnel greenhouses on their land lab. Yesterday, Dr. Webb’s agricultural production class worked in the greenhouses, harvesting ripe berries for sale. Each day they are in the greenhouses, students make an entry in their logbook recording what they did and observations they made. Today in the classroom, Dr. Webb leads a lesson on the life cycle of raspberry plants. His objective is for them to be able to use their knowledge of the life cycle of their type of raspberry plants to develop a management plan. He asks students to reflect on what they have noticed so far about how the plants have changed since they started working in the greenhouse several months ago. Students work in groups to discuss what they have recorded in their log books and develop an idea about the stages of the life cycle. Some students have experience growing raspberries with their families at home, so they contribute those ideas to the discussion. Each group presents their ideas, and Dr. Webb helps the class combine their ideas into a whole-class model. He then connects what they have constructed to the scientifically accepted model, helping them deepen their understanding and give names to what they have observed. They then use this knowledge to help decide what their next steps will be in the greenhouses after the harvest is complete.

This vignette illustrates how Dr. Webb uses experiential learning to support student understanding of processes and procedures through providing ongoing concrete real-world experiences, guiding students in reflecting on these experiences, helping them make meaning of their experiences through connecting to theoretical concepts, and providing opportunities to apply their new understandings in authentic practice. This ongoing cycle helps him prepare students to be able to flexibly apply their knowledge in the future. Considerations for utilizing production experiences in the laboratory environment as the basis for experiential learning are as follows:

Concrete Experience

Agricultural education laboratory environments often mirror the conditions of real-world facilities that students will encounter in industry. Teachers of agriculture use the laboratory environment to engage their students in real-world tasks related to production, such as harvesting, processing, and cleaning and maintenance of facilities. These tasks are often part of long-term, client-facing efforts, such as a plant sale or timber harvest, that raise funds for the program. These tasks, while aligned with the overall course, are often ongoing and may or may not be directly tied to planned instruction on a particular day. Through these concrete experiences, students make new observations, apply critical thinking and problem-solving skills in practice, and build up a range of experiences that become a rich foundation for deeper learning. Designing meaningful agricultural production experiences requires ensuring that the laboratory environment is accessible and welcoming to all students. Teachers do this through using their knowledge of the skills and abilities their students have and of the students’ prior experience in agriculture as well as through laboratory management strategies to assign tasks and support students.

Closing the Loop of the Experiential Learning Cycle

As with all experiential learning, the stages of reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation are important considerations in instructional design. In reflective observation, students take notice of what they experienced; they are guided to take a step back from the experience itself and consider what might be important about what occurred. In abstract conceptualization, students start to draw more general conclusions from what they have noticed through reflective observation. Through support from the teacher, they may also make connections between what they experienced and concepts they have learned in the classroom to help understand what they observed. In active experimentation, students apply their new understandings in practice. These stages can happen through conversations during practice in the laboratory environment or more formally in the classroom. In many cases, the active experimentation stage serves as a new experience to start the cycle over again.

Check for Understanding

Review the vignette describing Dr. Webb’s agricultural production class. Can you identify how he supported experiential learning?

Designing Discovery Learning for Coconstruction of Solutions to Real-World Problems

Discovery Learning in Action at CCHS

In their agricultural biotechnology class, Dr. Randy Webb and Ms. Rachelle Rasco use the design-based learning model (Wells, 2021) to engage students in a semester-long capstone project. Teams of students choose a real-world problem that relates to their career interests. They use techniques they learn in the biotechnology lab and knowledge they gain from field trips and in the classroom in order to design and test a solution. Dr. Webb and Ms. Rasco don’t know what the answers are, but they are there to support the teams along the way, providing guidance and resources as they need them. This semester, one of the teams is trying to figure out how you could feed a cow in space for one year! They are experimenting with techniques for growing crops in agar to alleviate the need to water them and address the gravity issue by holding the plants in place. They are testing out what concentrations of seeds, agar, and fertilizers would work best. Their initial solutions failed, but they are rethinking their process and preparing to redesign their solution and retest it. Their teachers are there to help them think about what went wrong and ask good questions to help them move forward. They also share their progress with the other groups in the class so that they can learn from each other. Confident that they will have something interesting to share no matter what happens next, the group is planning to write a research report, create a research poster, and present their findings to local industry leaders, news media, and school administrators. (Note: This description is excerpted from Webb et al., 2020.)

This vignette illustrates how Dr. Webb and Ms. Rasco use design-based learning (Wells, 2021) to engage students in developing their own solutions to real-world problems. In this process, students deepen their understanding of course content and practice higher-order thinking skills. The learning and application of content knowledge is driven by the problem students are trying to solve and the teachers serve as a guide in the process. Giving students voice and choice in their learning though this mode supports motivation and connection to identity. Considerations for designing discovery learning in the laboratory environment are as follows:

Choosing an Instructional Model

Unlike the other two modes discussed in this chapter, there are many potential instructional models that are grounded in constructivism and promote discovery learning. Design-based learning is one. Other common models are problem-based learning and the scientific-inquiry learning cycle. Problem-based learning originated in the field of medical education as a way to train medical professionals for the real-world decision-making and problem solving that they would encounter on the job (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980), and it has been adopted widely. In this model, students are presented with a real-world problem and the learning occurs through their attempts to determine a solution and defend their reasoning. A common form of the scientific-inquiry learning cycle (as described in NRC, 2000) is the BSCS 5E Instructional Model. This model has five stages (engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation) that direct students to answer a scientifically oriented question through hands-on exploration using authentic scientific practices (NRC, 2012).

Resources in the Laboratory Environment

Leveraging the resources of the laboratory environment in design of discovery learning, either entirely or as part of the experience, requires careful consideration of how and why students will engage with them. Typically, this means making a variety of tools and materials available to students to use as their needs emerge in process. Building in a proposal process in which teachers can review plans and approve the use of materials and space can help in management. For example, in a scientific-inquiry unit where students are designing experiments with plants in the greenhouse, groups can submit their proposed methods and list of materials in advance. This allows the teacher to gather what students need and review any safety concerns prior to setting up the experiment. In other cases, it may be appropriate to limit the materials and equipment available to the students. For example, in a woodworking design challenge, the teacher can give each group a standard set of materials to work with and limit them to using hand tools. Groups would have creativity in how they meet the design brief, but would also be guided to practice a specific set of skills.

Cooperative Learning

In the laboratory environment, management of group work is particularly important to make sure that students are engaged and safely using equipment and resources. Cooperative learning strategies are effective in promoting engagement and mediating potential conflicts due to differing social identities (Johnson & Johnson, 1999); this aspect of planning is especially important in longer term projects in which team dynamics can play a big role. Where appropriate, assigning specific roles within a group can help things run smoothly and can reinforce real-world career options within an industry. For example, one student can be in charge of procurement of materials, another can serve as project manager, and another can be the safety officer.

Authentic Assessment

Discovery learning in agricultural education contexts should rely on authentic assessment embedded in the design of the learning experience from the beginning. The laboratory environment provides endless possibilities for students to situate their learning in real-world problem solving. Formative assessment should happen throughout in order to keep groups moving in a productive direction. Summative assessments should include a product that is consistent with the task assigned and, wherever possible, should be shared with other stakeholders outside of the classroom community.

Check for Understanding

Review the vignette describing Dr. Webb and Ms. Rasco’s agricultural biotechnology class. Can you identify how they used the laboratory environment, embedded authentic assessment, and connected to student interest?

Learning Confirmation

To check your understanding of the ideas presented in this chapter, please complete the following:

  1. Compare and contrast the three modes for utilizing the laboratory environment. In your response, consider the types of student learning goals, theoretical underpinnings, and the role of the laboratory environment.
  2. Choose a unit that you are excited to teach that includes the laboratory environment and complete the following:
    1. Using the guidance in chapter 7, identify the learning objectives for your unit.
    2. Determine which mode (or combination of modes) you think best fits your objectives and explain why.
    3. Develop a sketch outline of your unit plan, making sure it includes the objectives, assessment evidence, and a brief description of how you will structure the learning activities.
    4. Consider the mode(s) you didn’t choose for this unit. Either
      1. Describe how the unit plan (objectives, assessment evidence, and learning activities) would be different if you utilized these different modes; OR
      2. Create new sketch unit outlines (objectives, assessment evidence, and learning activities) for your unit using each of the different modes.
  3. Within each of your unit plan ideas from number 2, complete the following:
    1. Identify potential challenges that might arise when teaching the unit and how you will go about addressing them.
    2. Describe ways in which you will attend to diversity and inclusion to best meet the needs of all of your students when teaching the unit.
    3. Reflect on what excites you most about the potential for powerful teaching and learning within the unit.

For additional practice, consider these additional assessment tasks:

  1. Swap unit plan outlines with a classmate and give them advice for how they could strengthen use of the laboratory environment by considering a different mode.
  2. Interview an experienced agriculture teacher about how and why they utilize the laboratory in their program. After the interview, identify which mode you think best fits their practice. Defend your answer with evidence from the interview.

Applying the Content

Your Role as a Designer

In many fundamental ways, teachers are designers. Working within existing curriculum frameworks and the real-world constraints of their educational environments, teachers make design decisions every day as they plan for how they will support student learning in powerful ways. Just like other design tasks, there is not a one-size-fits-all solution—how a teacher applies the ideas presented in this chapter will depend on their context and the laboratory environment(s) available for use. The different modes can be considered as potential solutions to instructional design challenges; they are offered as a starting point for decision-making about how and when to use the laboratory environment to support student learning. As teachers consider the resources available in the laboratory environment and/or new facilities and resources they would like to acquire, student learning is front and center. Identifying the learning goals for a course or unit and how these are situated in real-world contexts is a great starting point for determining which mode of instruction will be most suitable.

Reflective Questions

  1. Laboratory management and safety concerns require the teacher to do a lot of detailed planning and careful coordination of the daily activities of students. Why do you think the author of this chapter decided to focus instead on modes for teaching in laboratory environments?
  2. Recall the laboratory environment that you pictured at the beginning of this chapter. In what ways are you thinking about using that space to support student learning that you hadn’t considered before you read this chapter? What ideas did you have that were reinforced through the ideas presented in this chapter?
  3. Throughout this chapter, fundamental ideas that are introduced in other parts of this textbook were reinforced or referenced. Revisit your responses to the assessment questions in the chapters in part 3 (7, on planning; 8, on delivery; and 9, on evaluation). In what ways did your responses include the laboratory environment? In what ways should you expand your responses to make sure that you carefully consider the laboratory environment as you design instruction?

Glossary of Terms

  • agriculture laboratory environments: Instructional spaces in which students are using authentic resources in hands-on ways to support learning about agriculture
  • backward design: Designing learning with the end in mind; an approach to instructional planning that starts with identifying learning goals, proceeds to determining what evidence of learning is needed, and concludes with planning learning experiences
  • direct instruction: Teacher-centered instructional mode that scaffolds skill development as students work towards independence with teacher guidance
  • discovery learning: Umbrella term for student-centered instructional models grounded in inductive reasoning, such as problem-based learning, design-based learning, and inquiry-based learning
  • experiential learning: Instructional mode based on Kolb’s experiential learning theory that centers learning from reflection on concrete experience
  • inductive reasoning: Going from specific to general; building abstract understanding from concrete experience
  • psychomotor skill: task that depends on coordination of both cognitive (mind) and motor (body) functions

References

Barrows, H. S., and R. M. Tamblyn. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. Springer.

Dell’Olio, J. M., & Donk, T. (2007). Models of teaching: Connecting student learning with standards. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452232324

Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. TIP Publications.

Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory Into Practice, 38(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849909543834

Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (2nd ed.). Pearson Education LTD.

National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. National Academy Press.

National Research Council (NRC). (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. The National Academies Press.

Osborne, E. (1986). Teaching strategies for developing psychomotor skills. NACTA Journal, 30(1), 54–57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43755313

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Pearson.

Webb, R., Rasco, R., Steger, D., & Scherer, H. H. (2020). Students Discover Career Ready Skills Through Biotechnology. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 93(1), 45–48. https://www.naae.org/profdevelopment/magazine/archive_issues/Volume93/2020%2007%20–%20July%20August.pdf

Wells, J. G. (2021). Design-based biotechnological learning: Distinct knowledge forms supporting technology and science conceptual understanding. In Design-based concept learning in science and technology education, edited by Ineke Henze and Marc J. de Vries, 223–47. Koninklijke Brill NV. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004450004_011

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The Art and Science of Teaching Agriculture: Four Keys to Dynamic Learning Copyright © 2023 by Hannah H. Scherer is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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