4 Learning as Problem Solving

Setting the Stage

We all face countless problems each and every day, whether it is deciding what to wear based on key factors about our day or trying to solve an issue at work. While these seem like rather insignificant problems, we still go through the same processes for these problems as we do for the more complex and challenging issues we inevitably face. When we look at our agriculture programs, we encounter and present problems constantly through our curriculum and even through the basic operations of our classroom. Let’s consider the following situation together:

Your students start noticing that the classroom pet is not eating all their food and they have not needed to fill the pet’s water as frequently either. They are growing concerned and are unsure of how to address the situation or determine the potential causes of the pet’s new behavior.

When students bring this issue forward, it might be easy for us to offer possible causes and answers to their questions based on our knowledge of the pet. However, more in depth learning can take place if we help facilitate and lead the students through an investigation of their own to determine possible solutions.

Introduction

Problem-solving is not a new concept in Career and Technical Education and agricultural education. Many individuals have contributed to our knowledge of problem-solving in teaching and learning within the agricultural setting over the decades. This list includes Krebs (1967), Crunkilton & Krebs (1982), Gubitz (1984), and Hedges (1996), many of whom link their work back to the foundations of problem-solving laid out by John Dewey.

Overview

If we look back at Dewey’s foundational work, we see him place importance on the social nature of learning. He stressed a means of problem-solving that focused on the social role of people and stressed that our society benefits from the broader community and by making connections across cultures. Tanner (1997) evaluated Dewey’s Laboratory School and the concepts that educators should still consider when developing our teaching and learning approach, which includes educating students in the problems of living together. In our agricultural education programs, we have a unique opportunity to connect our content back to issues in our local communities as well as statewide, nationwide, and worldwide. Additionally, there is an opportunity to foster service-involved thinking and social sensitivity and to create socially and civically responsible individuals through our programs. Problem-solving and other heuristic approaches (i.e., inquiry learning, discovery learning) to teaching and learning are a means by which we can achieve some of our internal goals of creating well-rounded, civically engaged students.

While there are many variations when defining problem-solving as a teaching approach, for this chapter, we will use Moore’s (2015) working definition of problem-solving as “the intentional elimination of uncertainty through direct experiences and under supervision” (p. 353)—in other words, creating space for learners to generate new knowledge using problem-solving strategies with guidance. These problems can be planned and prepared for or spontaneous, occurring on their own. The key points of this definition are “direct experiences” and “under supervision.” Problem-solving is an active teaching approach and is student-centered, which means students will be directly involved with the creation of knowledge regarding the problem at hand. Additionally, “under supervision” should not be forgotten as a part of this definition. Although students will encounter problems on their own to work through, we should still provide supervision, guidance, and advice in all situations that are part of our curriculum. As we begin to unpack the problem-solving approach, you will see there is a systematic approach to this teaching technique.

Executing the Problem-Solving Approach

Within our various teaching spaces in agricultural education, we will typically plan for problems and issues we want our students to solve. We do this through creating Units of Instruction and laying out problem areas within the content. Embedding problem areas within our Units of Instruction helps to bring focus to the content and should be connected to other areas of instruction to help with students’ transfer of learning. If we do not properly identify the problem area, our approach may not be as effective. Without proper planning, we could have a problem that is too narrow, which will limit the analysis we can lead our students through, or we could plan for a problem that is too broad, which could result in confusion. Additionally, while planning our overall program of study, it is important to line up our Units of Instruction and problem areas using a seasonal approach based on your regional area and community needs (e.g., developing an integrated pest management plan around the specific plants being grown in your school’s greenhouse, identifying how to protect against common diseases based on the crops currently growing in your area).

While we should plan for problem-solving, we also cannot discount the “teachable moments,” the problems and issues that just naturally arise in our program that can be solved. It is important to involve your students in the generation of solutions and use the problem as a learning experience when possible. If we plan for the problem-solving approach and build our ability to execute this method, it will become natural for us to include students in those other issues that come up on their own (e.g., sick animals, equipment breaking, an immediate school or community need).

Steps to the Problem-Solving Approach

Hopefully by this point you are wondering how to execute this strategy within your teaching. The problem-solving approach includes five basic steps, which you’ll see vary from source to source. In general, these include:

1.  Identify the problem
2. Analyze the problem and gather information
3. Generate potential solutions
4. Select and test solutions
5. Evaluate the results

Identify the problem. One of the most challenging elements of problem-solving as a teaching approach is clearly defining the problem to be addressed. The problem itself should not be too narrow or too board as both can lead to confusion. Unless a problem naturally arises, we must plan for the problem and clearly present it to our learners. In addition to identifying the problem, we also need to create interest and motivate our learners to want to explore solutions to the problem. Motivating our learners is ultimately the hidden step to the problem-solving approach, but this substep should not go unaddressed. Refer to the Principles of Teaching and Learning related to motivation for good teaching actions for motivating your learners.

Analyze the problem and gather information. Once the problem has been clearly presented, students should move into the next step to explore the problem. As with most behaviors, you will probably need to spend a little time training your learners how to efficiently analyze the problem. Train them on how to track down credible sources, how to critically analyze information, how to look at all possible angles, and how to synthesize the information gathered, just to name a few approaches. Once you help with the collection and analysis of information a few times, you should be able to take a more hands-off approach with that same group of learners as you continue to facilitate more problem-based instruction. The analysis of the problem should help lead to the next step of generating possible solutions.

Generate potential solutions. During this step you should let your learners share all potential solutions no matter the expenses associated or how crazy the idea might sound. Encourage your students to justify their solution based on the information gathered to help keep them on track. Depending on how you design the activity, invite all learners to share potential solutions. For example, if you are solving the problem as a whole class make it an assignment for each student to generate their own solution(s). Or if you have small cooperative groups working on the problem, put in safeguards like assigning student group moderators who will ensure all students have a voice in the process (see the section on group teaching techniques in chapter 8 for more ideas). Do your best not to limit creative thought since you will begin to collectively identify the better solution(s) to test as you move into the fourth step.

Select and test solutions. As you can see this is a two-step action of the problem-solving approach. You will begin this step by evaluating the list of possible solutions based on feasibility as a class. Since students were not limited in their thinking during the previous step, you will need to have the conversation now about what you can test based on your resources. You could start by asking your students to identify any of the solutions that might be too extreme in terms of costs, time, resources, and so on. Once you have narrowed down your list, it will be easier to identify the better solutions to test. If you have multiple feasible and testable solutions, consider splitting up the class to test the possible solutions, or you can test them out together one-by-one as a whole class.

Evaluate the results. Once you have successfully tested your solution(s) have your students evaluate the results. Was the solution successful in addressing the problem? If so, how could the solution be improved to better address the problem? If it was not successful, how could you modify parts of the solution to test it again? These are just a few questions you could have your students address as they reflect on the solution(s) tested. As you know, we can learn a lot from failures during the problem-solving process so do not discount failed solutions, make them a learning opportunity. Even if your first tested solution is successful, have students evaluate the process to identify if a more effective and efficient approach could exist. At a minimum, make sure you evaluate the results as a whole class. If cooperative groups were used during the process, consider having each group share their results so everyone can learn from one another.

Good Practices while Executing the Problem-Solving Approach

Earlier you were introduced to the Principles of Teaching and Learning in chapter 3; you’ll therefore be able to identify several of these principles through the good practices laid out below. In other words, as you incorporate the Principles of Teaching and Learning into your lessons you will also be using these good practices and vice versa. While utilizing problem-solving techniques, there are several actions that we can incorporate which will help make our students’ learning meaningful (Krebs, 1967).

1. Help students connect the parts of the problem situation to the broader issue. Typically, our students hold novice knowledge on topics we cover. As novice learners, students need guidance in making connections between topics and identifying larger issues that may play a role in the problem.
2. Incorporate the immediate use of knowledge. We know this is an important step for all learning; if immediate action is not taken with a problem situation, students may fail to see the problem’s relevance and importance.
3. Make the objectives of the problem-solving approach clear. There are several approaches described later in this chapter that can be used when laying out a problem situation for students. All the described techniques will help give the problem situation structure and clarity when presenting the problem to your learners.
4. Build in transfer of knowledge connections. Each problem situation we present will typically be very specific, so we should aim at building in additional opportunities for students to use the problem-solving techniques in other situations.
5. Use a variety of activities within the learning situation. Using a variety of learning activities can reach learners in different ways. With the steps of problem-solving laid out earlier, we can utilize a variety of individual and group teaching techniques to help accomplish the objectives of the problem-solving approach.
6. Connect the problem situation to the students’ personal lives to make the learning more meaningful. Additionally, build in opportunities for your students to set their own problems and inquiry ideas.
7. Incorporate cooperative learning. We learn from each other with problem-solving so work on making the activity a collective effort.
8. Allow students to succeed. We know that success is a strong motivating force. Students who experience failure often will tend to shut down in the learning environment. When we start to practice problem-solving with students, we should build in opportunities for our students to be successful in discovering solutions as we train them through the approach.

Pitfalls to Avoid when Executing the Problem-Solving Approach

In addition to the good practices above, there are several pitfalls we should avoid with a problem-solving teaching approach. As we reflect on each problem-solving teaching experience, we begin to recognize these pitfalls that lead to confusion and frustration for both us and our students. Naming these pitfalls in advance and building in supports to avoid them will help with the effectiveness and efficiency of the problem-solving teaching strategy.

1. Unsuitable unit or problem area. Make sure the unit and problem has relevance to the students and your community. This also ties back to taking a seasonal approach to problem-based learning.
2. Inadequate teacher analysis of the situation related to the problem area. When planning for the problem situations, we should do our own research of the problem and have a general direction in mind for possible solutions before the students start walking through the steps of problem-solving on their own.
3. Inadequate teacher objectives. Not introducing appropriate objectives can lead to confusion of the problem situation and execution of the techniques you have tried to plan.
4. Omission of the interest approach or allowing the interest approach to become the problem-solving situation. Omitting the interest approach may lead to a lack of student motivation in solving the issue. We know that learning is not passive; without motivation there will be no drive for the students to participate in the learning.
5. Poor discussion-leading technique. We should use appropriate prompting and probing questions during discussion to help facilitate learning while also giving students creative freedom. If we are not careful, we could be too leading in our prompts or completely give away potential solutions which tends to defeat the purpose of the problem-solving approach.
6. Lack of orientation at the start and the end of the class period. As with any content or approach to teaching we need to include appropriate lesson introductions and summaries that can help students see the larger picture and make cognitive connections.

Overall, there is a lot of variation you can add to all these steps when executing the problem-solving approach. Keeping the basic steps in mind, along with the best practices and pitfalls to avoid, will help to provide overall structure to the activity. In addition to problem-solving, there are several other heuristic teaching strategies we can incorporate in our teaching, including inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning, and experimentation.

Other Heuristic Teaching Strategies

While these approaches are very similar to problem-based instruction, there are differences in the purpose and structure. Moore (2015) lays out each of these additional methods including discovery, inquiry, and project-based learning methods. Discovery learning in essence is a formal approach to problem-solving using the scientific method. The steps involved with discovery learning are nearly identical to the five steps already established for problem-solving. With this approach you would identify a problem, develop possible solutions, collect data, analyze and interpret data, and test conclusions. As you work through this strategy, the steps will ultimately lead to the need for revised solutions or provide supporting evidence for the chosen solution.

Inquiry learning is another problem-solving strategy, where emphasis is typically placed on the process of determining a solution rather than finding a solution for the problem. This approach would be very useful when trying to work through more of a hypothetical problem when you may not have all the resources needed to test possible solutions. There are multiple approaches to inquiry-based instruction (Moore, 2015) including a three-step procedure (identify the problem, work toward solutions, and establish solutions) and the five-E inquiry sequence (engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate).

Additionally, project-based instruction, although not always tied to a problem situation, can at times have a natural connection to the problem-solving depending on your approach to student engagement with the problem. For instance, you may decide on a specific product the students need to create as they determine solutions such as case studies, surveys, models, and so on. With all these strategies, you typically have options on how structured or flexible you want to make the active learning for your students.

Encouraging Individual Problem-Solving

In addition to working through problem situations collectively, our learners are also engaged in problem-solving through their Supervised Agricultural Experiences (SAE), in which they will need to solve problems on their own. Problem-solving is a skill which needs to be developed and practiced like any other skill, adding to the value of us incorporating problem-solving to our classroom learning so students can solve their own problems successfully. Gubitz (1984) identified several questions that can be proposed for learners to engage in problem-solving on their own, including:

1. What is the specific problem?
2. What really is the source of irritation?
3. Why is it so bothersome?
4. Who is involved?
5. When did it start?
6. How is the problem “ours” to do something about?

While these questions are somewhat broad, we can tailor them for our students and their situations. We know that students will face many problem situations while carrying out their SAE projects and it is important that we help facilitate their identification of solutions instead of just providing them with a solution. Most of us have the goal of learners becoming independent and being able to establish knowledge on their own, but this ability comes with practice. Several methods for providing practice to learners are laid out in the following section.

How Problem-Solving Looks in Agricultural Education

There are many ways to set up a problem-solving situation for your students. Hedges (1996) created a resource for Career and Technical Education (CTE) that lays out several of these approaches along with lesson vignettes from in-service CTE teachers. All the example approaches explained here are summarized versions of the original work laid out by Hedges and the contributing teachers (1996).

The first technique for laying out a problem is key steps, used when there are specific steps required for the successful completion of a task. Typically, the Key Steps technique will be partnered with a demonstration of the needed steps. This technique is extremely useful for objectives centered around using and maintaining equipment. No matter which curriculum we are using, nearly all courses have equipment of some kind that require the set of steps to use it properly.

The second technique is the forked-road approach, where there are two choices for the problem solution, and you need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of both options. Looking at an example from animal sciences, you may choose to use this technique when asking students to decide when to keep or cull a cow from the herd, or from veterinary science, when deciding to use euthanasia in determining whether treatment is possible with a sick animal. When carrying out this technique you want to make sure you identify the decision that needs to be made as well as lay out all key factors that should be considered in making an informed decision. As students reach their decision between the two options, it is good practice to have each student justify their choice.

The possibilities-factors technique sets up a problem with more than one solution when several factors must be considered to select the most appropriate solution. You might plan for this approach when asking students to choose the most appropriate harvesting or transplanting method for a specific plant. For this technique, you will want to clearly present the problem statement and have your learners list all the possible choices (this step is also great for review of previously learned content). Once all the possibilities have been listed, you would ask the students to discuss all the factors that should be considered before making their decision.

The situation-to-be-improved approach can be used when specific characteristics or requirements should be considered for a situation. Students are presented with important information about the situation such as the requirements needed for the successful execution of the situation, and they would then give recommendations for improvements. This technique could be used in a natural resources unit when examining the interdependence of an ecosystem. For example, you might present students with the issue that a local landfill will reach its maximum capacity soon, so how can you make it last longer? After the issue is presented, the students would then discuss characteristics to be considered and possibly layout the “ideal” situation. Once that information is identified, they would determine the what and why for all characteristics to help them arrive at recommendations for improvement of the situation.

A fifth approach is the effect-cause technique, where causes of an issue would be evaluated to determine appropriate options for action. For this technique, we can consider an example from landscape or turfgrass management: a mower is not cutting evenly when used on a putting green, what is the cause of the problem? To help students determine the cause, additional information would need to be presented; this information could potentially be presented in a case study format or given more simply, such as by adding that the mower leaves an incline with every pass and the operator has already checked the air in the tires as well as the height of the deck and both were fine. These additional details will help students make a more informed decision when trying to determine the cause of the issue.

Finally, problems could be presented using the four-question interest approach. Four questions should all be considered by the learners:

1. How important is …?
2. What problems have we had with …?
3. What do we need to know or be able to do to correct or prevent these problems?
4. What related information are we lacking?

Using this technique can help motivate students by involving them in the planning and execution of the lesson. Through their responses to the four questions, as an interest approach, they will develop ownership for the direction and success of the lesson and provide a foundation for critical thinking and selecting which additional problem-solving techniques should be used. An example of this technique would be, if you had a group that has limited knowledge of identifying and interpreting nonverbal messages, the specific questions you would ask the learners would then be: How important is it to be able to recognize and interpret nonverbal communication? What problems are associated with reading nonverbal messages? And what do we need to know and/or be able to do in order to solve and/or prevent these problems? The students would provide answers to all these questions within the interest approach of the lesson, and then you would be able to use additional problem-solving techniques as you move through the actual lesson content. The fourth question—What specific information are we lacking concerning what we said we need to know and/or be able to do?—is more of a lead-in question to begin teaching around the issue or specific skill.

References

Crunkilton, J. R., & Krebs, A. H. (1982). Teaching agriculture through problem solving (3rd ed.). The Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc.

Gubitz, A. C. (1984). Instant personal problem solving: Simplified approaches for everyone. The Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc.

Hedges, L. E. (1996). Teaching for connection: Critical thinking skills, problem solving, and academic and occupational competencies. Ohio Agricultural Education Curriculum Materials Service.

Krebs, A. H. (1967). For more effective teaching: A problem-solving approach for teachers of vocational agriculture (2nd ed.). The Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc.

Moore, K. D. (2015). Effective instructional strategies: From theory to practice (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Tanner, L. N. (1997). Dewey’s laboratory school: Lessons for today. Teachers College Press.