Every day people learn on their own without the presence of teachers. How is it that people learn without experiencing formal instruction? What process do people follow as they encounter problems, questions, or obstacles that require them to think and study in order to solve problems confronting them?

By identifying the process that people use rather automatically—and use successfully—then could one not teach students in a classroom or laboratory following the same process? Would it not make sense for teachers to teach people by following the same process that people generally follow in learning on their own?

John Dewey describes this process in his book, How We Think, as steps in reflective thinking. The process can also be described as a chain of reasoning, the method of science, the scientific method, or the learning process. The steps comprising the process are listed in the accompanying learning process chart. Analyze Case 4-1 in terms of the learning process outlined in the following chart.

In Case 4-1, how do the steps of the learning process apply? Not only would you experience a provocative situation when you found the leak, which was the first problem, but you would also experience a provocative situation when you applied what you thought was the solution (soldering) and it didn’t work. When the soldering did not work, that was yet another problem. The problem of the soldering not working cannot be solved until you move to step 2 of the learning process, that is, defining the problem.

So often, people try to omit this important step. We try to jump ahead to formulating solutions and testing them. In fact, that is what happened in Case 4-1.

Being provoked is not enough. Being perplexed is not enough. Being interested and wanting to know the answer is not enough. We should figure out what is wrong and decide on what questions to ask before rushing on by trial and error.

Once we have defined the problem or determined questions that must be answered, then we can productively gather data or information and arrive at possible solutions. In the case of the soldering problem, one needs to ask questions such as, “Why isn’t the solder bonding with the copper?” “What conditions are essential for soldering to work?” and “How does soldering work?” Then we can read; ask others for advice; search the Internet; study pictures, diagrams, or videos; and use our own reasoning. In doing all of this, we arrive at answers and possible solutions that can then be tested and evaluated.

In the case of the soldering, you would learn that, in order for soldering to work, the surface must be thoroughly clean, flux must be used for further chemical cleaning, there must be a good fit between the pipes, and the temperature of the copper pipes must reach about 400° Fahrenheit. Then you ask yourself if your earlier attempts at soldering met all of those conditions. Through this process of reasoning, you would realize that the only condition you were not sure of was the temperature. As you read and discussed the matter with others, you would find the caution: Be sure all water is drained from the pipes. If this is not done, the metal will not reach the proper temperature because the water conducts away too much of the heat.

This would lead you to deduce that the pipes were not drained well enough. You would then drain them further (notice that this could be yet another problem to solve) and determine if the joint would sweat satisfactorily. In so doing, you would be evaluating your proposed solution.

Notice that in the process of solving one problem, other problems are often discovered. It should also be pointed out that people do not always solve a problem by following the steps of the learning process in consecutive order. A person moves back and forth among the steps in an interactive fashion.

If following such a process allows people to learn on their own, then teachers can use this process to guide students in their learning. Teachers who use a problem-solving approach in teaching can build on the learning process presented in the earlier chart. The problem-solving framework that corresponds to the steps in the learning process is presented in the next chart.

An explanation of each step follows. The teacher begins the unit of instruction with an interest approach that is designed to present a provocative situation. Students are then led in a discussion of why they need to know this information and formulate a list of objectives to be achieved by studying the unit. They are then asked to develop a list of questions they need to answer. By developing a list of objectives to be achieved by studying this unit, and deriving a list of questions to be answered, the students will have rather carefully and clearly defined the problem. In order to solve the problem (or answer the questions), the students will need to gather data and information, and formulate possible solutions. Specific suggestions for how to accomplish this problem-solution phase are found in Chapter 5, and specific techniques that may be used to provide the needed data and information are presented in Chapters 6 and 7.

Students then test the solutions or answers in class, lab, FFA activities, or through their SAE programs. Specific techniques teachers may use to guide this testing of solutions are found in Chapters 9, 10, and 11. Solutions are then evaluated by the students and by the teacher to determine how much has been learned. The next chart compares the steps in the learning process with the steps in the problem-solving approach to teaching.

A PRINCIPLE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING APPLIED TO PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH TO TEACHING

For each step of the problem-solving approach to teaching, the principles of learning that support the step are presented, what the step is designed to accomplish is explained, and techniques that can be used to accomplish the step are suggested. A full discussion of teaching techniques is presented in Chapters 6 and 7.

Interest Approach

The interest approach corresponds to the first step of the learning process, that is, “experiencing a provocative situation.”

Principles of Learning That Are Applicable

1. Students must be motivated to learn. Learning activities should be provided that consider the wants, needs, interests, and aspirations of students.
2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning. Subject matter and learning experiences must be provided that begin where the learner is.
3. Motivation (interest) is strongest when students perceive that learning can be useful.

What to Accomplish. In the next step, the teacher seeks to gain the attention of the students. They have been studying another unit of agricultural subject matter, and now they need to focus in on something else. Prior to coming to the agriculture class, they have been in other classes, and during the change of classes, they’ve been involved in numerous and varied activities. The interest approach is designed to draw the attention of the students to a common point. But it must accomplish more—it must also create a felt need on their part for studying the unit that is being introduced.

This felt need to know must make students realize they do not know enough about the subject to be successful in their area of study. It should be so urgent that students personally feel they need to learn more.

The interest approach should also make students aware of their situation and experiences that relate to the unit of instruction. Finally, it should set the stage for the establishment of the objectives to be achieved through the unit of instruction.

Techniques to Use. Teachers can create the necessary provocative situation that encourages interest in numerous ways. Some possibilities are

• Raising perplexing questions.
• Showing specimens or samples, such as an injured owl or a broken flywheel.
• Presenting a case study in which a job to be done is outlined and then students are asked to explain how to do it.
• Showing an Internet connection of a veterinarian performing an operation.
• Giving a skillful demonstration.
• Showing pictures of success and failure—good and bad.
• Giving a project assignment.
• Conducting a provocative skit or role play.
• Providing a computer spreadsheet for completion.
• Asking questions that encourage students to describe their experiences about the subject matter to be taught.

When using each of these techniques, students have to be led to realize that they do not know enough or do not have the skills required for solving the problem, answering the questions, or otherwise handling the subject matter being presented. Yet they must also end up wanting to be able to do what they have been challenged to do and led to see that it is important for them to move from where they currently are to where they would like to be.

Objectives to Be Achieved

The second phase of the problem-solving approach to teaching partially accomplishes the “defining the problem” step of the learning process.

Principles of Learning That Are Applicable 

1. Students are motivated through their involvement in setting goals and planning learning activities.
2. Students progress in acquiring new knowledge and skills only as far as needed to accomplish their purposes.

What to Accomplish. At this point in the problem-solving approach, the teacher’s goal is to lead students to realize that the subject before them is worth studying and admit that they need to study it. The teacher asks lead questions (presented in Chapter 5) that cause the students to discover reasons why they need to study the unit. Furthermore, the teacher has the students identify goals they hope to achieve by studying the unit. In the process of thinking through their goals or objectives for studying the unit and identifying reasons why this subject matter is worth knowing, students are able to begin to more completely define the problem area. They will complete the definition of the problem step when they develop a list of questions to be answered (problems to be solved) in order to meet the objectives they have set for the unit of instruction.

Techniques to Use. The teacher develops the objectives to be achieved with the class by raising carefully selected lead questions (Chapter 5) and skillfully conducting a discussion (Chapter 6) in order to develop (usually on the chalkboard) a list of the students’ objectives to be achieved from studying the unit of instruction.

Questions to Be Answered

The third step of the problem-solving approach to teaching completes the “defining the problem” step of the learning process.

Principles of Learning That Are Applicable

1. When the subject matter to be learned possesses meaning, organization, and structure that is clear to students, learning proceeds rapidly and is retained longer.
2. Students are motivated when they attempt tasks that fall in a range of challenge such that success is perceived to be possible but not certain.

What to Accomplish. Here the teacher seeks to lead the students to think about the questions they need to answer so they can achieve the objectives that have been established. This step is designed to completely define the problem area by identifying all the questions with which it is associated. Hence, it is here that the subject matter to be learned is presented. Although students may not think of all the questions they need to answer, it is important for them to learn how to go about identifying the questions to arrive at the best possible conclusions and solutions.

Techniques to Use. Just as with the “objectives to be achieved” step, for the “questions to be answered” step, the teacher relies on lead questions (Chapter 5) and discussion (Chapter 6) to develop a list of questions the class will study in order to complete the problem area. Whenever students fail to think of all the questions for which they need answers, the teacher completes the list using their anticipated lists from the unit of instruction. In the case of subjects where the students have too little experience to be able to deduce the list of questions, the teacher should provide the list for them.

Problem Solution

During the fourth phase of the problem-solving approach to teaching, the following steps in the learning process are completed: “seeking data and information,” and “formulating possible solutions.”

Principles of Learning That Are Applicable

1. Students think (formulate and test possible solutions to problems) when they encounter an obstacle, a difficulty, or a challenge in a situation that interests them.
2. Learning is an active rather than passive process.
3. Directed learning is more effective than undirected learning.
4. To maximize learning, students should “inquire into” rather than be “instructed in” the subject matter.
5. Problem-oriented approaches to teaching improve learning.
6. Students learn what they practice.
7. Behaviors that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be learned.
8. To be most effective, reward (reinforcement) must follow as immediately as possible the desired behavior and be clearly connected with that behavior by the student.
9. Transfer of learning is more likely to take place when what is to be transferred is a generalization, a general rule, or a formula.

What to Accomplish. During this phase of problem solving, the teacher seeks to assist the class in obtaining, studying, and evaluating facts, concepts, and skills necessary to answer the questions, solve the problems, and develop the conclusions needed to master the subject matter. In essence, the teacher and the students cooperatively decide on the content to be studied.

The preceding list of principles of learning for this phase of problem solving are not the only principles of learning that apply to this phase of problem solving. For example, as each problem is solved, interest must be re-created. As the teacher prepares the class for supervised study, the class needs to further define the problem. So, although certain principles of learning are associated with one phase of problem solving more than another, they are, nevertheless, often used in more than one place in the problem-solving approach to teaching.

Techniques to Use. It is at this step of the problem-solving approach that the greatest amount of time is spent by teachers and students. It is here where subject matter and skills are learned. Hence, it is here on which all the techniques of teaching have to be drawn. These techniques of teaching are presented in Chapters 6 and 7. They are

• Lecture
• Discussion
• Demonstrations
• Field trips
• Role-playing
• Resource people
• Cooperative learning
• Supervised study
• Independent study
• Experiments
• Use of student notebooks
• Use of instructional sheets, job sheets, and skill sheets

Testing Solutions through Application

When students apply what they have learned in the classroom and laboratory, they are completing the “testing proposed solutions” step of the learning process.

Principles of Learning That Are Applicable

1. Supervised practice that is most effective occurs in a functional educational experience.
2. Learning is most likely to be used if it is learned in a situation as much like that in which it is to be used as possible and immediately preceding the time when it is needed.

What to Accomplish. This is a very important phase of problem-solving teaching. This is the “learning to do” stage of the process. Granted, there is room for and need for “doing” in the problem-solution stage, but doing is essential in the application stage. At this point, the teacher wants the students to put into practice what they have learned.

This is the opportunity to have students try out the conclusions and approved practices arrived at during classroom study to see if and how they work. In the process, they can prove for themselves the relevance and usefulness of their course of study.

Application also allows students to practice new knowledge and skills. This practice develops the proficiency they will need after they leave the program.

Another important thing this step accomplishes is that it allows and even forces individualization. The teacher has to work with each student in accordance with his or her situation, learning style, interests, and aptitudes.

Techniques to Use. Every conceivable opportunity needs to be used to provide practice. Application should occur in the classroom whenever possible. It will also occur in the school laboratory, through FFA activities, during field trips, and as a part of students’ supervised agricultural experience programs. More specific details for guiding students in the application of their learning are offered in Chapters 9, 10, and 11.

Evaluation of Solutions

The sixth step of problem solving is the same as the final step of the learning process: “evaluating the results.”

Principle of Learning That ls Applicable. When students have knowledge of their learning progress, performance will be superior to what it would have been without such knowledge.

What to Accomplish. Students try what they have learned and decide if it works. They use their knowledge and new skill and determine whether it produces the results they had come to expect it would.

Of course, they also are able to evaluate their own progress. Their understanding of what was studied and their levels of skill affect outcomes. Thus, the teacher needs to help them learn to evaluate their performances as well as the validity of what they have studied.

Likewise, the results obtained during the process of gathering information, formulating solutions, and applying what has been learned also provide evaluative information for teachers. This information allows teachers to determine not only how well students have learned but also how well the teachers have taught.

Techniques to Use. Many forms of evaluation are used and not just at the conclusion of the problem area. Students can complete paper and pencil tests to assess cognitive outcomes. Students can also use checklists to determine if their products reach the level of quality desired. They can further use checklists to see if they have followed the proper procedures. Of course, the teacher can use rubrics to evaluate the students’ performances. Evaluation is also accomplished with project work and through the analysis of financial records. Projects may be further evaluated through competition in the FFA. Teachers should also use appropriate instruments to have students evaluate their teaching. Detailed information regarding evaluation appears in Chapter 14.

SUMMARY

Much of the learning in life comes through some form of problem solving. This is true for the homeowner who is trying to start the lawn mower. It is just as true for the researcher who is seeking an answer to a perplexing scientific problem. Likewise, it is true for students as they move from where they are to where they need to be to become successful individuals.

The learning process is a problem-solving process. Hence, agriculture teachers need to teach their students using the learning process as the foundation for classroom and laboratory activities. The use of the problem-solving approach to teaching makes operational a systematic and effective process for teaching and learning.

FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Analyze the episode described at the beginning of this chapter.
   1. What incidents or activities described in the episode correspond to each step in the learning process and the problem-solving approach to teaching?
   2. What principles of teaching and learning are demonstrated during the episode?
   3. What was the role of the teacher in leading the problem-solving exercise?
   4. What sources of information did the teachers use to identify the blooming weeds? In explaining the unique pattern of blooming weeds in the pasture?
   5. What new information did the teachers have during the second class session that made possible the solution of the problem? What is the source of this new information?
2. Observe an agriculture teacher who is teaching students a new process. During the session, write down each step of the learning process that is used. Also, note the principles of learning that are used with each step.
3. Recall a recent problem with which you were confronted. Analyze it according to the steps in the learning process. See if you omitted any steps. Ask yourself if you could have solved the problem more efficiently by following the problem-solving procedure more closely. If so, how and why?
4. Explain how teaching, learning, and research are similar by using the steps in the learning process to formulate your answer.
5. Select a topic in agriculture or natural resources and outline how you could teach it using the problem-solving approach.